Torsional Effects On Irregular Buildings Under Seismic Loads Construction Essay

Torsional Effects On Irregular Buildings Under Seismic Loads Construction Essay This chapter presents a brief review of literature available on the subject torsional effects on irregular buildings under seismic loads. Efforts were made to collect related research material. Review of literature encompass research papers on the topic in general and specifically aims at latest trend to control asymmetry, design requirements, configuration requirements, torsional irregularity, performance of irregular buildings, and behaviour of appropriate structural system. At the end of the chapter, selection of lateral force procedures is also described. 2.2 RELATED RESEARCH WORK Latest available research papers are studied related to subject of thesis. Few of research papers are described here under 1) Torsional irregularity of any structure can be determined by calculating the deflections at the ends in every storey. Codes and guidelines give the definite numbers or coefficients to limit the excess torsion in irregular structures. In this paper adequacy of code provisions regarding the torsional irregularity coefficient is checked and concerned over limits are expressed. For this particular research works different groups of buildings are made with different changes in plans such as position of shear walls, number of grids and number of storey etc. Four groups are made namely A, B, C and D with different locations of shear walls in plan. At first, variation of torsional irregularity with respect to number of grids is investigated. Analysis has been performed for each variation of gridlines in a particular group and conclusions carried out. Graphs are plotted by changing the number of grids lines in each group A, B, C and D against irregularity coefficients. It is observed from theses graphs that in each particular group A, B, C or D there exist different numbers of grid lines against which maximum results are obtained in that particular group. Maximum value of irregularity coefficient is determent in group C in which shear walls is away from the gravity center but not at the edges. Irregularity coefficient reach a maximum value for certain number of grid lines then decrease by increasing the number of axis. In second stage, torsional irregularity coefficient is calculated by changing the number of storeys. General trend which graphs shows that with increasing the number of storey for any particular structures, keeping position of shear walls and number of axis same, torsional irregularity coefficient decreases. Curves for structure group C for 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 storey shows that lesser number of storey yields more critical results because as the number of stories increases center of rigidity shifts toward center causing lesser torsion consequently gives less critical results. In the last, position of walls is changed to determine the effects on the torsional irregularity coefficient. Graphs are plotted for each individual structural group against the torsional irregularity coefficient. Curves of different storeys predict the lesser the number of storeys more critical will the results. By changing the location of the shear walls in any particular key plan indicate that critical results are obtain for shear wall placed in between the center and edges of the structures. (Guany Ozmen, 2004) 2) Parametric analysis of irregular structures under seismic loading reveals the effect of torsion as per Turkish Earthquake Code. For the purpose center of stiffness were changed and torsional irregularity was created. Different number of storeys was considered which were analyzed using static force procedure and dynamic force procedures. Results for both of the methods were compared and conclusion drawn. Effect of non-orthogonality was also studied by changing the orientation of the non-orthogonal walls. All these cases were studied for five different directions of earthquake. From these research results limitations in Turkish earthquake code suggested to be improve. (Semih S. Tezcan and Cenk Alhan, 2000) The earthquake forces produced in the irregular buildings are unpredictable and can not be determine with greater accuracy thus such structures are more critically prone to earthquakes. A series of five, framed and walled structures are taken with different irregularity coefficients. This paper shows the behavior of different modules against earthquake forces and results drawn. Paper suggests more elaborative measures need to be taken by codes and standards to take over the issue of torsional irregularity. (Ozmen G and Gulay F.G. 2002) 3) Codes and Standards direct that along with the static force procedure non linear analysis are need to be performed to know the exact behavior of the structure. In this paper investigation is done by creating two different models. In first model eccentricity made only in one direction by shifting mass, whereas in second case eccentricity was produced in both directions. Near-fault zone effects were investigated alongwith far-fault results. Research work shows that displacement demand of the structures remains the same irrespective of distance from fault. The paper concludes that non linear analysis needs to be performed necessarily linear classic analysis alone are not sufficient for analysis of torsionally irregular structures. ( Emrah Erduran, February 2008) 4) To control seismic response of unsymmetrical building viscous damper are placed. With help of modal analysis effect of plan wise distribution of damping were investigated and torsional dynamic behavior were examined. For input seismic earthquake suitable performance indexes were represented by mean of norms. These norms help to distribute plan wise distribution of extra dampers with help of parametrical analysis on asymmetrical plan. Design formulas are prepared to represent the results for norms which were verified by experimentation, which is representative of seismic response of asymmetrical systems. (L. Petti , M. De Iuliis, 2008) 5) Accidental eccentricity applications provided in codes are evaluated and compared with alternative interpretations. An effect of accidental eccentricity is evaluated on the strength of different components. Flexible side elements behavior is investigated and protection measures are described to limit the forces such a comparison is made using different codes. A proposal is made with respect to codes provisions regarding accidental eccentricity, minimum value is specified laterally responding systems. Evaluation of results based on inelastic dynamic analyses indicates that all codes satisfactorily fulfill the requirements to control the response of torsionally unbalanced buildings. Similarly ductility demand and element deformation demand for all the codes are considered. This response demand has a consistence relationship with time period and geometric of the buildings. Codes requirement in design of stiff side elements are verified and found to be satisfactory. ( A.M Chandler, J. C Correnza and G.L. Hutchinson, 1995) TORSIONAL IRREGULARITY Torsional irregularity is defined in Building Code of Pakistan 2007 (BCP 2007) and is reproduced in Table No.2.1. and Table No. 2.2 Table 2.1 Plan Structural Irregularities IRREGULARITY TYPE AND DEFINITION 1.Torsional irregularity to be considered when diaphragms are not flexible Torsional irregularity shall be considered to exist when the maximum storey drift, computed including accidental torsion, at one end of the structure transverse to an axis is more than 1.2 times the average of the storey drifts of the two ends of the structure. 2. Re-entrant corners Plan configurations of a structure and its lateral-force-resisting system contain re-entrant corners, where both projections of the structure beyond a re-entrant corner are greater than 15 percent of the plan dimension of the structure in the given direction. 3. Diaphragm discontinuity Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness, including those having cutout or open areas greater than 50 percent of the gross enclosed area of the diaphragm, or changes in effective diaphragm stiffness of more than 50 percent from one storey to the next. 4. Out-of-plane offsets Discontinuities in a lateral force path, such as out-of-plane offsets of the vertical elements. 5. Nonparallel systems The vertical lateral-load-resisting elements are not parallel to or symmetric about the major orthogonal axes of the lateral-force-resisting system. Table 2.2 Vertical Structural Irregularities IRREGULARITY TYPE AND DEFINITION 1. Stiffness irregularity soft storey A soft storey is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70 percent of that in the storey above or less than 80 percent of the average stiffness of the three storeys above. 2. Weight (mass) irregularity Mass irregularity shall be considered to exist where the effective mass of any storey is more than 150 percent of the effective mass of an adjacent storey. A roof that is lighter than the floor below need not be considered. 3. Vertical geometric irregularity Vertical geometric irregularity shall be considered to exist where the horizontal dimension of the lateral-force-resisting system in any storey is more than 130 percent of that in an adjacent storey. One-storey penthouses need not be considered. 4. In-plane discontinuity in vertical lateral-force-resisting element An in-plane offset of the lateral-load-resisting elements greater than the length of those elements. 5. Discontinuity in capacity weak storey A weak storey is one in which the storey strength is less than 80 percent of that in the storey above. The storey strength is the total strength of all seismic-resisting elements sharing the storey shear for the direction under consideration. 2.4 CONFIGURATION REQUIREMENTS Regular structures have no significant physical discontinuities in plan or vertical configuration or in their lateral-force-resisting systems such as the irregular features. Irregular structures have significant physical discontinuities in configuration or in their lateral-force-resisting systems. Irregular features include, but are not limited to, those described in code. All structures in Seismic Zone 1 and Occupancy Categories 4 and 5 in Seismic Zone 2 need to be evaluated only for vertical irregularities of Type 5 (Table 2.2) and horizontal irregularities of Type 1 (Table 2.1). Structures having any of the features listed in Table 2.2 shall be designated as if having a vertical irregularity. (UBC 1629.5.3) Where no storey drift ratio under design lateral forces is greater than 1.3 times the storey drift ratio of the storey above, the structure may be deemed to not have the structural irregularities of Type 1 or 2 in Table 2.2. The storey drift ratio for the top two storeys need not be considered. (UBC 1629.5.3) The storey drifts for this determination may be calculated neglecting torsional effects. Structures may have irregularity in plan or elevation listed in BCP 2007. 2.5 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS Structural systems shall be classified as one of the types listed BCP-2007 and defined under. Bearing Wall System A structural system without a complete vertical load-carrying space frame. Bearing walls or bracing systems provide support for all or most gravity loads. Resistance to lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced frames. Building Frame System A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for gravity loads. Resistance to lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced frames. Moment-Resisting Frame System A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for gravity loads. Moment-resisting frames provide resistance to lateral load primarily by flexural action of members. Dual System A structural system with the following features comes in the category of dual system: 1. Essentially complete space frame that provides support for gravity loads. 2. Resistance to lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced frames and moment-resisting frames (SMRF, IMRF, MMRWF or steel OMRF). The moment-resisting frames shall be designed to independently resist at least 25 percent of the design base shear. 3. The two systems shall be designed to resist the total design base shear in proportion to their relative rigidities considering the interaction of the dual system at all levels. 2.6 DRIFT AND STOREY DRIFT LIMILATION Drift Drift or horizontal displacements of the structure shall be computed where required. For both Allowable Stress Design and Strength Design, the Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, ΆM, of the structure caused by the Design Basis Ground Motion shall be determined in accordance with this section. The drifts corresponding to the design seismic forces ΆS, shall be determined. To determine ΆM, these drifts shall be amplified. A static, elastic analysis of the lateral force-resisting system shall be prepared using the design seismic forces. Where Allowable Stress Design is used and where drift is being computed, the related load combinations shall be used. The resulting deformations, denoted as ΆS, shall be determined at all critical locations in the structure. Calculated drift shall include translational and torsional deflections. The Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, ΆM, shall be computed as follows (BCP 2007): ΆM = 0.7 R ΆS (2.1) Alternatively, ΆM may be computed by nonlinear time history analysis. The analysis used to determine the Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement ΆM shall consider P-Ά effects. Storey Drift Limitation Storey drifts shall be computed using the Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, ΆM. Calculated storey drift using ΆM shall not exceed 0.025 times the storey height for structures having a fundamental period of less than 0.7 second. For structures having a fundamental period of 0.7 second or greater, the calculated storey drift shall not exceed 0.020 times the storey height, with exceptions of: 1. These drift limits may be exceeded when it is demonstrated that greater drift can be tolerated by both structural elements and nonstructural elements that could affect life safety. The drift used in this assessment shall be based upon the Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, Ά M. 2. There shall be no drift limit in single-storey steel-framed structures classified as Groups B, F and S Occupancies or Group H, Occupancies. In Groups B, F and S Occupancies, the primary use shall be limited to storage, factories or workshops. Structures on which this exception is used shall not have equipment attached to the structural frame or shall have such equipment detailed to accommodate the additional drift. Walls that are laterally supported by the steel frame shall be designed to accommodate the drift. The design lateral forces used to determine the calculated drift may disregard the limitations and may be based on the period determined, neglecting the 30 or 40 percent limitations. 2.7 SELECTION OF LATERAL-FORCE PROCEDURE Any structure may be, and certain structures defined below shall be, designed using the dynamic lateral-force procedures. (UBC 16.8) Simplified Static The simplified static lateral-force procedure may be used for the following structures of Occupancy Category 4 or 5 (UBC 1629.8.2) 1. Buildings of any occupancy (including single-family dwellings) not more than three storeys excluding basements that use light-frame construction. 2. Other buildings not more than two storeys in height excluding basements. The static lateral force procedure may be used for the following structures: (UBC 1629.8.3) 1. All structures, regular or irregular, in Seismic Zone 1 and in Occupancy Categories 4 and 5 in Seismic Zone 2. 2. Regular structures under 73.0 meters (240 feet) in height with lateral force resistance provided by different systems. 3. Irregular structures not more than five storeys or 20 meters (65 feet) in their height. 4. Structures having a flexible upper portion supported on a rigid lower portion where both portions of the structure considered separately can be classified as being regular, the average storey stiffness of the lower portion is at least 10 times the average storey stiffness of the upper portion and the period of the entire structure is not greater than 1.1 times the period of the upper portion considered as a separate structure fixed at the base. Dynamic Lateral Force Procedure The dynamic lateral-force procedure shall be used for structures, including the following: (UBC 1629.8.4) 1. Structures 73 meters (240 feet) or more in height 2. Structures having a stiffness, weight or geometric vertical irregularity of Type 1, 2 or 3 or structures having irregular features not described in code. 3. Structures over five storeys or 20 meters (65 feet) in height in Seismic Zones 3 and 4 not having the same structural system throughout their height. 4. Structures, regular or irregular, located on Soil Profile Type SF that has a period greater than 0.7 second. The analysis shall include the effects of the soils at the site . Structures with a discontinuity in capacity, vertical irregularity Type 5, shall not be over two storeys or 9 meters (30 feet) in height where the weak storey has a calculated strength of less than 65 percent of the storey above. Where the weak storey is capable of resisting a total lateral seismic force of ÃŽÂ ©o times the design force prescribed. Where ÃŽÂ ©o = Seismic force over strength factor given in Table 16-N of UBC 97

the time is now :: essays research papers

If... he has committed murder, he must die. In this case, there is no substitute that will satisfy the legal requirements of legal justice.There is no sameness of kind between death and remaining alive even under the most miserable conditions, and consequently there is no equality between crime and the retribution unless the criminal is judicially condemned and put to death." Immanuel Kant. About 2000 men, women, and teenagers currently wait on America's "Death Row." Their time grows shorter as federal and state courts increasingly ratify death penalty laws, allowing executions to proceed at an accelerated rate. It's unlikely that any of these executions will make the front page, having become more and more a matter of routine in the last decade. Indeed, recent public opinion polls show a wide margin of support for the death penalty. But human rights advocates continue to decry the immorality of state-sanctioned killing in the U.S., the only western industrialized country that continues to use the death penalty. Is capital punishment moral? Capital punishment is often defended on the grounds by the government, that society has a moral obligation to protect the safety and the welfare of its citizens. Murderers threaten this safety and welfare. Only by putting murderers to death can society ensure that convicted killers do not kill again. Second, those favoring capital punishment contend that society should support those practices that will bring about the greatest balance of good over evil, and capital punishment is one such practice. Capital punishment benefits society because it may deter violent crime. While it is difficult to produce direct evidence to support this claim since, by definition, those who are

Choose the Right Major

All people go throw many stages from childhood to the end of their life. They build their dreams to become something worth in their lives such as a teacher, doctor or anything else. The most important part of these dreams to become reality is to choose the right major. Many people said students should decide what they want to be before they start studying in university. I disagree with them because students at university get help from their friends or teachers to choose their career. In addition to that, many students are changing their decision of major when they start studying at the university.The first reason is, teachers encourage the student to decide the best major according to their personality. Also, their friends help them to choose their major. When students go to university, and start study they begin to communicate with other people [listening]. From those people students take some experiences, and decide what they want to study. For example, students can ask anyone from the student service to give them more information generally about the major and the majors which are available in the university, and also about the major that they want to study.The second reason is, many students change their majors when they go to university. According to the reading A, â€Å"about 80 percent of students who start college switch their major at least one time†. This is because when students start study they got more information about their majors, and they understand what they want to study so they change their majors. For example, in the university students study many subjects to help them to decide which major they want.In conclusion, in this essay I disagree that is necessary for students to know their major before interning the university because students can get some help from their friends who have experiences or from their teachers. Also, many students take time to decide what they want and change their major many times. I think in the future the go vernment will give some courses to the students before they go to the university to help them to decide what they want to study and give them more information about their major. Choose the Right Major All people go throw many stages from childhood to the end of their life. They build their dreams to become something worth in their lives such as a teacher, doctor or anything else. The most important part of these dreams to become reality is to choose the right major. Many people said students should decide what they want to be before they start studying in university. I disagree with them because students at university get help from their friends or teachers to choose their career. In addition to that, many students are changing their decision of major when they start studying at the university.The first reason is, teachers encourage the student to decide the best major according to their personality. Also, their friends help them to choose their major. When students go to university, and start study they begin to communicate with other people [listening]. From those people students take some experiences, and decide what they want to study. For example, students can ask anyone from the student service to give them more information generally about the major and the majors which are available in the university, and also about the major that they want to study.The second reason is, many students change their majors when they go to university. According to the reading A, â€Å"about 80 percent of students who start college switch their major at least one time†. This is because when students start study they got more information about their majors, and they understand what they want to study so they change their majors. For example, in the university students study many subjects to help them to decide which major they want.In conclusion, in this essay I disagree that is necessary for students to know their major before interning the university because students can get some help from their friends who have experiences or from their teachers. Also, many students take time to decide what they want and change their major many times. I think in the future the go vernment will give some courses to the students before they go to the university to help them to decide what they want to study and give them more information about their major.

Chemical Warfare in the Iran-Iraq War

Chemical Warfare in the Iran-Iraq War party that distrusted and misunderstood the army. On the side of Iran, army was under control of Ayatollah Khomein, who was a religious fanatic. These two personalities on both sides took advantage of the army and involved the army in their personal differences. Military force played a crucial role in the outbreak of the war from both sides. For instance, Baathist planned their military campaign, and they had a positive attitude on themselves. According to Iraqs, they referred Iranians as one who lacked cohesive leadership, and who lacked spare parts for America- made equipment. Baghdad on the other side possessed well equipped and trained forces, which made their morale run high against Irans armed forces including revolutionary Guard (Pasdaran) troops, who were led by the religious mullahs with inadequate military experience; the Iraqis could muster twelve complete mechanized divisions equipped with latest soviet materials. By the late 1970s, the Iraqs had assembled an army of 190,000 men, 450 aircraft and 2,200 tanks (Hogendoorn 2008). The relationship between Iran and Iraq deteriorated in April 1980; when Iranian supported Ad Dawah attempt to assassinate Iraqi, foreign minister Tariq Aziz. When they failed to assassinate foreign minister they further went on and tried another attempt to assassinate the minister of culture and information, Latif Nayyif jasim. In reaction, the Iraqis immediately rounded up members and supporters of Ad Dinah and deported to Iran thousands of shias of Iranian origin. Saddam went further and ordered the execution of presumed Ad Dawah leader Ayatollah Sayyid Muhammad Bagr as Sadr and his sister. Robison Grant emphasized that, on 22 September 1980 Iraqi fighter jets that were used to attack nine dissimilar Iranian bases by surprise, with intention to destroy air forces for the Iranians while on the very ground. During this period or moment, there entered 6 Iraqi divisions of army and they drove around 5 miles transversely the border belonging to Iranians on 3 fronts and ended pu occupying 1000 square kilometers of Iranian territory, although this attempt did not succeed the Iranian jets retaliated by hitting strategically crucial targets close to paramount Iraq cities. Following this, the war broke out and went on for eight years. Both sides despite being imported high- tech fighting machines, they had inexperienced and untrained personnel to operate and repair them. As a result, they had to look for other tactics, which were effective caring less about casualties (Smart 2004). During the war, to avoid defeat Iraq hunted out every promising weapon, this included developing of self- sustaining facilities to produce militarily fundamental quantities of chemical warfare agents. This presented a solution to the masses of evenly armed Basif and Posdoran. These weapons were singularly successful when used on troop meeting areas and supporting artillery. When carrying out distasteful operations, Iraq routinely supported the attacks with deep fires and incorporated chemical fires on forward defenses, artillery positions, command posts, and logical facilities (Maritson 1984, 141). During this war, Iraq developed the ability to produce, store, and use chemical weapons. These weapons included G-series blister and H-series agents. These weapons were built on various offensive munitions which include aerial bombs, rockets, war heads and artillery shells on the Al Hussein Scud missile variant. During the war, Iraqi fighters attacked Iran by dropping mustard-filled 500 kilogram and tabun-filled 250 kilogram, it is also noted that, they also installed spray tank on an unknown numbers of helicopters. Iran unsuccessfully tried to attack the osirak reactor on September 30, 1980 that belonged to Iraq. In response to Iranian missile attack against Baghdad, Iraqi fired 190 missiles against Iranian cities for a period of six weeks (Iraqi Scientist Reports on German 2003). The Iraqi air force, which consisted of about 28,000 troops, had a back from soviet and French aircraft. The air force was divided into squadrons of light bombers, interceptors, fighter, transports, and helicopters. Despite these heavy munitions, the Iraq did not have appropriate measures to utilize these munitions to their maximum. For instance, most attack squadrons and all the bomber squadrons had been retained to protect the palace. Also, they had inadequate training, especially pilots, and they received inadequate training in Soviet Union. Iraqis lacked both target analysis and reconnaissance capabilities. They also lacked a viable command and to manage system for either close air hold up or on an integrated air defense (Grant 2003). On the side of Iran, its air force was backed by United States, where they received their training and assistance. For instance, they were provided by number of air crafts which included, 166 f-5Es, 188 F-4D/Es and 77 F-14s. Iranians had only about 77 air craft dedicated to the mission, unlike the Iraqis who had 115 air craft defense. Iranians had fourteen dedicated reconnaissance aircraft, the Iranians enjoyed the fact that their aircraft had advanced avionics, and could carry smart bombs, and they had trained pilots to fly them. Also, Iranian took advantage of being near the border, based on that the Iranians would have an easier time to reach their targets, Stephen R. Shalom, The United States and Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988 Iran Chamber Society 1,2 (n.d). In conclusion, chemical warfare of Iran-Iraq war of 1980-1981, was largely fueled by internal factors. It is notable that, even though there were external influence, super powers such as Soviet Union and United state, they provided weapons which did not help too much. Case in point is in Iraq where they did not have the skills to use the weapons, thus creating more problems than it solved. It is due to this they had to look for other ways to apply, hence introduction of chemical warfare. Therefore, Iraq and Iran played a significant role in the rise and facilitated the war for eight years.

The Geography of Oceania, the Pacific Islands

The Geography of Oceania, the Pacific Islands Oceania is the name of the region consisting of island groups within the Central and South Pacific Ocean. It spans over 3.3 million square miles (8.5 million sq km). Some of the countries included in Oceania are Australia, New Zealand, Tuvalu, Samoa, Tonga, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Palau, Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, Kiribati,  and Nauru. Oceania also includes several dependencies and territories such as American Samoa, Johnston Atoll,  and French Polynesia. Physical Geography In terms of its physical geography, the islands of Oceania are often divided into four different sub-regions based on the geologic processes playing a role in their physical development. The first of these is Australia. It is separated because of its location in the middle of the Indo-Australian Plate and the fact that, due to its location, there was no mountain building during its development. Instead, Australias current physical landscape features were formed mainly by erosion. The second landscape category in Oceania is the islands found on the collision boundaries between the Earths crustal plates. These are found specifically in the South Pacific. For example, at the collision boundary between the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates are places like New Zealand, Papua New Guinea,  and the Solomon Islands. The North Pacific portion of Oceania also features these types of landscapes along the Eurasian and Pacific plates. These plate collisions are responsible for the formation of mountains like those in New Zealand, which climb to over 10,000 feet (3,000 m). Volcanic islands such as Fiji are the third category of landscape types found in Oceania. These islands typically rise from the seafloor through hotspots in the Pacific Ocean basin. Most of these areas consist of very small islands with high mountain ranges. Finally, coral reef islands and atolls such as Tuvalu are the last type of landscape found in Oceania. Atolls specifically are responsible for the formation of low-lying land regions, some with enclosed lagoons. Climate Most of Oceania is divided into two climate zones. The first of these is temperate and the second is tropical. Most of Australia and all of New Zealand are within the temperate zone and most of the island areas in the Pacific are considered tropical. Oceanias temperate regions feature high levels of precipitation, cold winters, and warm to hot summers. The tropical regions in Oceania are hot and wet year round. In addition to these climatic zones, most of Oceania is impacted by continuous trade winds and sometimes hurricanes (called tropical cyclones in Oceania) which have historically caused catastrophic damage to countries and islands in the region. Flora and Fauna Because most of Oceania is tropical or temperate, there is an abundant amount of rainfall which produces tropical and temperate rainforests throughout the region. Tropical rainforests are common in some of the island countries located near the tropics, while temperate rainforests are common in New Zealand. In both of these types of forests, there is a plethora of plant and animal species, making Oceania one of the worlds most biodiverse regions. It is important to note, however, that not all of Oceania receives abundant rainfall, and portions of the region are arid or semiarid. Australia, for example, features large areas of arid land which have little vegetation. In addition, El Nià ±o has caused frequent droughts in recent decades in Northern Australia and Papua New Guinea. Oceanias fauna, like its flora, is also extremely biodiverse. Because much of the area consists of islands, unique species of birds, animals,  and insects evolved out of isolation from others. The presence of coral reefs such as the Great Barrier Reef and Kingman Reef also represent large areas of biodiversity and some are considered biodiversity hotspots. Population Most recently in 2018, Oceanias population was around 41 million people, with the majority centered in Australia and New Zealand. Those two countries alone accounted for more than 28 million people, while Papua New Guinea had a population of over 8 million. The remaining population of Oceania is scattered around the various islands making up the region. Urbanization Like its population distribution, urbanization and industrialization also vary in Oceania. 89% of Oceanias urban areas are in Australia and New Zealand and these countries also have the most well-established infrastructure. Australia, in particular, has many raw minerals and energy sources, and manufacturing is a large part of its and Oceanias economy. The rest of Oceania and specifically the Pacific islands are not well developed. Some of the islands have rich natural resources, but the majority do not. In addition, some of the island nations do not even have enough clean drinking water or food to supply to their citizens. Agriculture Agriculture is also important in Oceania and there are three types which are common in the region. These include subsistence agriculture, plantation crops ,  and capital-intensive agriculture. Subsistence agriculture occurs on most of the Pacific islands and is done to support local communities. Cassava, taro, yams, and sweet potatoes are the most common products of this type of agriculture. Plantation crops are planted on the medium tropical islands while capital-intensive agriculture is practiced mainly in Australia and New Zealand. Economy Fishing is a significant source of revenue because many islands have maritime exclusive economic zones that extend for 200 nautical miles and many small islands have granted permission to foreign countries to fish the region via fishing licenses.   Tourism is also important to Oceania because many of the tropical islands like Fiji offer aesthetic beauty, while Australia and New Zealand are modern cities with modern amenities. New Zealand has also become an area centered on the growing field of ecotourism.

LSTD303 Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

LSTD303 Paper - Essay Example The issue of divorce does not only entail the end of a marriage or union between the two individuals involved, but also other relevant and complex legal issues such as the sharing of property, the custody of the children, the financing of the children’s lifestyle, among other fine legal details (Virginia State Bar, 2013). No wonder therefore, that the issue of divorce is a fundamental legal issue in the state of Virginia, where the State has provided that for any divorce to occur, there should be sufficient grounds which are to be applied as the basis. Besides the fundamental requirements regarding sufficient grounds for completing a divorce, there are also some requirements regarding the residency of the area of jurisdiction, which also informs the settling of the divorce issue between the involved parties. Therefore, the article seeks to address the fundamental questions that different individuals might have, regarding the issue of divorce in the state of Virginia, with a fo cus on the types of divorce, the required grounds for completing divorce, the property rights and how they are addressed, the award of spousal support, the custody of children and the children support obligations. Types of divorce in the State of Virginia The state of Virginia recognizes two type of divorces; divorce from bed and board or divorce from the bond of matrimony (Hofheimer, 2009). The divorce from bed and board refers to the situation where the husband and wife are legally separated from each other, and they are not allowed to remarry again. This is a qualified type of divorce, under which the parties involved can then go back to the court and petition the court to merge the divorce into a divorce from the bond of matrimony, after one year has passed from the date the two were legally separated (Virginia State Bar, 2013). On the other hand, the divorce from the bond of matrimony is the absolute form of divorce, where the links between a husband and wife are permanently se vered. Annulment is the other type of divorce, which takes the form of a legal decree that declares a marriage null and void, on the ground that such a marriage was entered under conditions of fraud, duress or coercion of one of the party (Stim, 2013). The Grounds for Divorce in the State of Virginia Under the Family Laws of the State of Virginia, it is provided that a divorce cannot just occur out of the mere agreement between the husband and wife. Under this law, it is required that sufficient ground should exist for effecting a divorce between a husband and wife, even where the two have mutually agreed to have a divorce (Gross & Callahan, 2006). The bases for the two types of divorces are provided for differently. The required grounds for completing a divorce from bed and board, as provided for in the State of Virginia, include a Willful desertion or abandonment, where the individuals involved have broken the bonds of cohabitation, and they have the intent to dessert or abandon e ach other (Virginia State Bar, 2013). Thus where sufficient grounds exist for one member of the marriage to dessert, the court will then grant the authority for the application of a divorce from bed and board. The second ground under which a divorce from bed and board can be applied is the acts of cruelty or bodily harm perpetrated by one party in the marriage, against the other (Hofheimer, 2009). Under circumstances where it is evident that one party to the marriage is capable of bodily causing harm to the other, and thus

Managers should adapt their leadership style according to the context Essay

Managers should adapt their leadership style according to the context. Discuss - Essay Example he or she might inspire or motivate the employees or followers towards his decisions thereby amplifying their level of performance and devotion towards the assigned tasks. This might prove effective for both the manager as well as the organization to enhance its reputation and brand image in the market among other rival players (Northouse, 2010, pp. 768-781). This essay is divided into three parts that mainly highlights the importance of leadership and the types of leadership style. Along with this, it also highlights the reasons for which, a manger need to get adapted to situational or different leadership styles so as to manage the impacts of the situations in an effective way. Finally it is concluded with a conclusion at the end of the essay. Leadership is a style that is used to influence other followers or employees to get attracted towards the decisions and actions taken or implemented by a leader or manager. With the help of this style, a leader or a manger very easily motivates or inspires others to enhance their level of performance and devotion towards the assigned jobs or tasks. As a result of which, the level of productivity of the organization gets enhanced resulting in amplification of its brand image and market share in the market among others. Therefore, it might be clearly stated that, in this age of competitiveness, an organization may retain its sustainability and competitive position only if an experienced and tactful manager or leader is present within it. Otherwise, it may not be possible for the organization to cope up with varied types of business challenges such as oil hick, recession, excess attrition, employee conflicts and many others. All individual may not comprise of the inherent quality of being a leader, but might attain such a position through vigorous experience and talents. However, in order to do so, it’s extremely essential to know about behavioural, situational and contingency dimensions of leadership. Among all these